The manosphere may be online, but its influence is felt in real life.
A new study has identified what researchers call the “M factor,” a syndrome characterized by a cluster of attitudes linked to misogyny, male supremacy, violence and opposition to gender equality.
“The M factor reflects an attitude that sees ‘true masculinity’ in jeopardy.” It is associated with ideas of male superiority, propensity for violence, profanity, contempt for sexual minorities and opposition to gender equality,” said study leader Denis Ribeaud, a criminologist and sociologist at the Jacobs Center for Productive Development at UZHorg.
Researchers from the University of Zurich worked in collaboration with Mencare, the umbrella organization for Swiss men and fathers, to survey more than 6000 people aged 16 to 64 across Switzerland about masculinity, gender roles, sexuality, family life, relationships and experiences of violence.
Their goals were to examine how ideas about masculinity evolve as the manosphere — a network of influencers, online communities, and social media channels that promote forms of extreme masculinity and male dominance — continues to grow.
This study, the first of its kind in Switzerland, found that many of these attitudes are deeply interconnected.
“Our data show that all of these ideas are highly interconnected and can be traced back to a common basic state.”
M factor and gender
Overall, 20% of the men tested scored high on the M factor scale, putting them at high risk for problem or violent behavior.
The divide is even more pronounced among young people, with nearly one in three 18- to 24-year-olds falling into the high-scoring category. Half of those young men said they were worried that “real men are being increasingly marginalized in society.”
Women, on the other hand, are more likely to have egalitarian views. Although the researchers found that men’s and women’s attitudes became similar with age, women consistently scored lower on restrictive and dominant views of masculinity across age groups.
IM factor – and where you fall in society
The study also found strong links between M factor scores and socioeconomic status. Men with lower levels of education, lower job status and lower income were more likely to have higher scores, while higher education and stronger job prospects were associated with lower scores.
Men with higher M scores were also more likely to view authoritarian parenting and violence in child-rearing as acceptable and to support the traditional division of labor in relationships, with women handling most of the caregiving tasks while men work as breadwinners.
Family background and geography also played a role. Men whose fathers were born outside of Switzerland, especially in countries with patriarchal social structures and poorly established norms of gender equality, are likely to score higher on the M factor.
High scores were also more common in German-speaking regions than in French- or Italian-speaking parts of the country and more common in suburban and rural areas than in cities.
What causes it – and the rise of incel
According to researchers, experiences of exclusion and limited social participation may contribute to these attitudes, with strong masculinity concepts serving as a source of self-expression and self-confidence.
The findings were extended to intimate relationships. Men with high M factor scores are more likely to identify as incels, consume strong pornography, use sex services and report perpetuating or experiencing intimate partner violence.
“The IM factor is a consistent risk factor for intimate partner violence – in terms of perpetrating and experiencing it, and for both sexes: Men and women with high M-factor scores are more likely to report being committed but also experiencing violence in their relationships,” said Ribeaud.
“This is not contradictory. Those who see the superiority of men, the contempt of women and the control of behavior as the norm are most likely to be on both sides of this dynamic.”
The study’s authors say the findings underscore the need for a broader public discussion about masculinity, starting in schools.
One of the strongest recommendations of the study was the motivation involved in fatherhood. Researchers emphasize the importance of fathers taking an active role in raising children, supporting partners and participating fully in family life.
“Men who are actively involved in everyday family life not only have a positive impact on their children’s emotional and social development, but also on their academic success,” said co-author Markus Theunert, co-director of männer.ch.
“The key message of protection is that there is not just one ‘ideal’ type of masculinity,” he explained. “Masculinity is lovely. You can be a boy and be a man any way you want.”
